History Notes: Human beings at the Centre

 Human beings at the Centre

The Middle Ages were predominantly influenced by the philosophical school of thought known as scholasticism, which was deeply rooted in Christian theology. Although scholasticism encouraged knowledge and research, it prioritised the divine and the afterlife. The concept of Humanism emerged as a departure from Christian theology, emphasising the significance of human experience, worldly life and rational inquiry. Humanists highlighted the uniqueness, emotions, capabilities, literary expression, and communication skills inherent in humanity. This paradigm shift was founded on a transformation from a theological perspective to a human-centered outlook. Humanism also accommodated dissenting voices and criticism, questioning the authority of religious dogma and domination.

During this period, people avidly read ancient Greco-Roman works. The Arabs played a significant role in disseminating the ideas of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle throughout Europe. Humanists produced works in regional languages and created paintings and sculptures in the Greco-Roman style. Although ancient Greco-Roman civilisations served as their primary source of inspiration, the humanists' perspective was distinctly different. Greco-Roman art depicted Gods, the wealthy, and the powerful in all its beauty and splendour. However, Renaissance art represented human beings in all its naturalness. The numerous works of art and literature produced during the Renaissance period bear testimony to this shift. Humanism later became a source and inspiration for transformative changes across various spheres, including painting, architecture, literature, politics, history, science, and religion. The Renaissance, in essence, embodies these changes.

Paintings from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance period are given here. Although the themes are similar, distinct differences are evident in their style. Can you identify the differences?

Notably, Middle Age paintings tend to emphasise spiritual themes, such as angels and heavenly realms, whereas Renaissance paintings focus on the beauty of the human form, originality, and a naturalistic use of colours. This shift in artistic focus was a hallmark of the Renaissance period, during which fields like painting, sculpture, and architecture underwent profound transformations. Florence, one of the major commercial centres in Europe was also the centre of Renaissance in Italy.

Painting

Humanistic ideals were reflected profoundly in Renaissance paintings. Painters of the time presented human forms with remarkable accuracy, clarity, and meticulous attention to detail in their works. The knowledge they had acquired about human anatomy facilitated this artistic achievement. Moreover, painters emphasised rationalism and human emotions, attributing significance to the values of this world. With the influence of humanism, artworks became increasingly precise and realistic.

Painters often selected themes that emphasised theological significance for their works. However, Renaissance paintings had certain other distinctive features as well.

▪️Landscapes

▪️The use of colour to illustrate light and spatial depth

▪️Realistic depiction of the human body

▪️The use of oil paint

▪️Portraits

▪️The representation of divine figures in idealised human forms

The influence of Greco-Roman art was first evident in Giotto's works. However, it was Masaccio, a painter who emerged later created a profound impact on all artists who came later. His wall paintings, characterised by their round in shape and seemed to protrude from the surface, showcased human figures engaging in everyday life experiences.

"The Last Supper' and 'Mona Lisa' are the world-famous paintings of Leonardo da Vinci. These paintings speak of the unique way in which da Vinci harmonises colour, shadow and light. He was a versatile genius who scientifically studied the human body.

In the Last Supper, emotions like surprise, fear and guilt of Christ's disciples are vividly etched as Christ reveals that one of them betray him It is widely acknowledged that the enigmatic expressions of Mona Lisa conceals many unanswered questions. masterfully embedded by Leonardo da Vinci.

The paintings done on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel at Vatican, along with "The Last Judgment, have cemented Michelangelo's status as an immortal artist. His works predominantly feature powerful and graceful human forms.

Other notable painters of the Renaissance period include Titian and Raphael. Raphael portrayed humans as wise, moderate, and dignified. In their paintings, beauty and ideas were given equal importance Sculpture

Sculpture was another equally notable field of Renaissance art. Donatello was one of the most important sculptors of the Renaissance period. He liberated the art of sculpture from the medieval Gothic style, giving his works greater power and individuality. His iconic bronze sculpture, David, showcases a youthful figure standing with his weight shifted onto one leg. Another notable work, Gettamelata, depicts a soldier sitting on homeback, evoking the cavalrymen of ancient Kome Through this masterpiece, Donatello immortalised a secular hero Michelangelo's sculptures, which depicted Gods in human forms, deviated significantly from the traditional ancient Greco-Roman style His renowned works, such as the 'Pietà, portrays Virgin Mary, with Jesus Christ on her lap and the majestic sculpture of David, have cemented his legacy as an immortal artist

Architecture:

Architecture another field that witnessed transformation besides painting and sculpture. Filippo Brunelleschi set a new style in architecture. Quite different from the Gothic architectural style of the medieval period, influence of ancient Greco-Roman (classical) style is evident in the Cathedral he built in Florence. The lofty towers found in Gothic style, were replaced with domes (Dumo). Later, in the St. Peter's Basilica, built under the supervision of Michelangelo and Bramante, this style is more evident.

Renaissance Literature

"It is not in the stars to hold our destiny but in ourselves."

The above quote is from William Shakespeare's renowned play Julius Caesar. Examine the influence of humanism as reflected in these lines by Shakespeare.

Renaissance writers gave importance to individual liberty and secular values. The basic characterstic of Renaissance literature was its breaking away from the scholasticism of the Middle Ages. Although influenced by ancient Greco-Roman culture, most Renaissance writers chose to produce their works in regional languages. Prose literature gained prominence during this period.

In what ways will writings in regional languages and in prose forms become beneficial to society? Discuss in class.

Dante, the renowned author of The Divine Comedy, was a prominent literary figure during the Renaissance period. The poem's theme revolves around Dante's imagined pilgrimage through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. However, it also profoundly reflects human emotions, patriotism, fascination for natural phenomena, and the longing for a unified and independent Italy. Dante wrote The Divine Comedy in the regional language.

Another world-renowned writer, Petrarch, was a leading exponent of humanism. His sonnets addressing Laura reflected a bold and unique style. However, Petrarch remained committed to writing in Latin. Another notable Renaissance writer was Boccaccio, the author of the celebrated work The Decameron.

Niccolò Machiavelli's work, "The Prince," presents political thoughts. He believed that a ruler's paramount responsibility is to maintain the authority and security of the state. He also believed that individuals are generally selfish, driven by a desire for power and material prosperity. He advocated that a head of state should remain impartial and avoid showing favouritism or obligation to specific groups among the subjects. In The Prince, Machiavelli portrays an administrator who is different from the traditional medieval feudal administrators.

During the Italian Renaissance, several women recognised the significance of humanism. Among them, the most notable was the humanist and writer Cassandra Fedele. She earned a name through her writings and speeches, emphasising the importance of providing higher education to women. Fedele maintained a lively correspondence with wealthy Italian lords who championed humanism. Her speeches and writings were printed, published, and popularised by several prominent publishing houses.

In due course, the influence of Renaissance extended beyond Italy, impacting the literature of other countries. Consequently, numerous remarkable works were produced in other parts of the world. Let us take a look at some of them.

Printing played a significant role in popularising literature during the Renaissance period. Johannes Gutenberg established the first printing press in Europe. The printing machine, which was set up in the 15th century was made of metal and was of movable type. What could have been the influence of the printing press on the society of that period?

▪️Dissemination of knowledge

▪️Progress in literacy

With the invention of the printing press, people started reading literary works extensively.

Renaissance and Historiography

World history has been categorised as illustrated above for the ease of learning. This classification divides history into three distinct periods: the Ancient Period, spanning up to the 5th century CE; the Medieval Period, extending from the 5th to the 15th century; and the Modern Period, encompassing the era thereafter. This classification emerged during the Renaissance period. It was introduced by two Italian historians, Flavio Biondo and Leonardo Bruni. Let us examine the significant changes that occurred in the historiography during this period.

The transition from medieval Christian tradition to a secular life and thought was also reflected in the realm of historiography. During the Middle Ages, the prevailing notion was that historical events were divinely ordained and the course of history was governed by supernatural powers. This perspective lost its relevance during the Renaissance period.